This section is
dedicated to local stakeholder discussions on the issue of aquifer
depletion and groundwater overexploitation in Tunisia.
This page provides a summary of the analyses carried out within the framework of
the INECO project, for the analysis of the selected issue, and also includes a
tentative definition of objectives corresponding to the mitigation of the
problem causes.
Institutional and Economic Instruments for Sustainable Water Management in the Meditteranean Region
http://environ.chemeng.ntua.gr/ineco/Default.aspx?t=413
In this page you will find and extrordinary outline with the causes and effects of the groundwaters exploitation. Usefull information about water policies in Tunisia. Here you have plenty of clues you can follow in order to find legislation about water problems. Water supply and sanitation in Tunisia
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This article has last been comprehensively updated in March 2009. Please feel free to update if further.
Tunisia has achieved the highest access rates to water supply and sanitation services among the MENA countries through sound infrastructure policy. 96% of urban dwellers and 52% of the rural population already have access to improved sanitation.
By the end of 2006, the access to safe drinking water became close to
universal (approaching 100% in urban areas and 90% in rural areas).[1] Tunisia provides good quality drinking water throughout the year.[7]
Responsibility for the water supply systems in urban areas and large rural centres is assigned to the Sociéte Nationale d'Exploitation et de Distribution des Eaux
(SONEDE), a national water supply authority that is an autonomous
public entity under the Ministry of Agriculture. Planning, design and
supervision of small and medium water supplies and irrigation works in
the remaining rural areas are the responsibility of the Direction Générale du Génie Rurale (DGGR). Managing investment planning and implementation of projects are conducted by the Commisariats Régionaux au Développement Agricole (CRDAs).
In 1974, ONAS was established to manage the sanitation sector. Since
1993, ONAS got the status of a main operator for protection of water
environment and combating pollution.
The rate of unaccounted for water is very impressive, being 18.2% in 2004[2]
Access
According to the Joint Monitoring Program by WHO and UNICEF,
93% of the Tunisian population had access to an improved source of
water and 85% to adequate sanitation in 2004. Between 1990 and 2004,
access to water increased from 81% to 93%, while the access to
sanitation increased from 75% to 85%.[1]
Tunisia has achieved the highest access rates to water supply and sanitation services among the MENA countries through sound infrastructure policy. 96% of urban dwellers and 52% of the rural population already have access to improved sanitation.
By the end of 2006, access to safe drinking water has been expected to
be close to universal (approaching 100% in urban areas and 90% in rural
areas).[1]
According to the Tunisian Ministry of Development and International
Cooperation, in 2006 92.6% of the population had access to drinking
water in homes.[8]
Service qualityContinuity of supply
Tunis, the capital of Tunisia is able to provide 24-hour water with a supply of 110 liters per capita and day.[9]
The continuity of supply is very good with respect to regional
standards as it ensures good quality water throughout the year and has
the lowest percentage of non-revenue water in the region.[7]
Drinking water quality
Tunisia provides a good drinking water quality throughout the year.[7] The quality of the water supplied by SONEDE and GBRE/ACI in rural areas varies according to local conditions.[10]
Drinking water quality is monitored from production to distribution
from bacteriological and physico-chemical quality. The national water
distribution utility (SONEDE) and the Ministry of Health undertake this
monitoring.[7]
Sewer services
The rate of connection to sewerage network in Tunisian urban areas
increased from 20.6% in 1975 to 35.9% in 1987, and further up to 81.6%
in 2007.[3]
Wastewater treatment
Since 1960, Tunisia has engaged in studies of the re-use of wastewater. Currently, 7,000 hectares (17,000 acres), planted primarily with orchards and for livestock feed, use treated water for irrigation consistent with national law.[11] The number of waste water treatment plants has gradually risen in the last decade and it is expected to reach 83 in 2006.[4] Currently, 61 wastewater treatment plants are in operation with 9,650 km (6,000 mi) of wastewater network collecting 178 hm3 (million cubic metres) wastewater.[12] The largest wastewater treatment plant is situated in Choutrana with a daily performance of 120,000 m3.[13]
Water resources
The annual total volume of exploitable water in Tunisia is about 4670 hm3, out of which about 57% (2700 hm3) is surface water and the remaining 43% (1970 hm3) groundwater.[4] Tunisia is a water stressed country with per capita renewable water availability of 486 m3—well below the average of 1200 m³/capita for the Middle East and North Africa Region (MENA) region.[4] Out of the available surface water resources of 2100 hm3, only about 1220 hm3
are expected to be captured for actual use. Eighteen existing dams, 21
projected dams and 235 hillside dams are expected to augment the
available supply but rapid sedimentation of reservoirs will
progressively reduce storage capacity and shorten life. Excessive
groundwater extraction in the coastal regions of Cap Bon, Soukra and
Ariana has resulted in saline intrusion in many areas leading to groundwater being unsuitable for further regions. Only 50% of all water resources have salinity
levels lower than 1500 mg/l and can be used without restriction. 84% of
all groundwater resources have salinity of more than 1500 mg/l, and 30%
of the shallow aquifers more than 4000 mg/l.[4]
Table 1 shows accessible (A) and available water (B) in Tunisia in hm3 per year for different time-horizons[12][13]
Water use
The consumption of water was estimated at more than 2.4 km3 in Tunisia in which year?.[5] In 1996, 86% of the water withdrawals were from agriculture.[14]
The water sector is also obliged to meet the increasing water demand
for all urban and rural areas, the agriculture sector as well as for
touristic and industrial needs. Through the management and development
of water resources, available water resources increased from 2.76 km3 in 1991 to 3.525 km3 in 2000. It is planned that the supply will reach 4.6 km3 by 2010. This will mainly be done by developing unconventional resources, including the use of treated sewage water.[15] According to estimations for the year 2030 by the Ministry of Agriculture, the demand of water would be stabilized of 2.7 km3
per year, even if the supposed population of Tunisia in 2030 will be
about 13 million people and given today's regular demand would result in
a demand of 3.1 km3 per year.
History and recent developmentsEvolution of water policy in Tunisia
The Water policy in Tunisia from the beginning of the second half of
the 20th century until the 1970s contained the limited mobilization of
the resources - with the construction of dams and reservoirs
From the beginning of the 1980s there was an enforcement of the dam policy and application of the Plans Directeurs des Eaux (Water Master Plan).[16]
In 1990 the Decennial Strategy (1990–2000) for the Mobilization of
Water Resources and the Maximum Mobilization Maximale of available
Resources was set up. This strategy was devised and implemented in order
to provide integrated control of potential water sources. The cost of
this ten year strategy approached two billion US dollars.[11] The following table shows the perspective concerning water resources in Tunisia:
Recent developments
In 2003, the Ministry of Agriculture published the Water Master Plan for the water sector[7]
Two main strategic options were identified and implemented: the 10
years strategy of water resources mobilization (2001–2011) initiated for
the 1st time in 1990, and the long-term strategy (2030).
Responsibility for water supply and sanitationPolicy and regulation
The Ministry of Agriculture and Hydraulic Resources sets policies
concerning conventional water resources in Tunisia, while the Ministry
of Environment and Sustainable Development governs sanitation,
wastewater and environmental planning.[15] Its hydraulic works section, the Diréction Générale des Grands Barrages et des Grands Travaux Hydrauliques (DGBGTH), is responsible for the construction of major water resources projects.[4]
Guiding and basic water laws
Compared to other North African countries, Tunisia has developed and
adopted numerous laws and plans regarding its water resources not only
recently. Water Master Plans (WMP) exist already since 1970, when a
first WMP was drafted for the Northern part of Tunisia, as this is the
region containing most of the resources and related activities. The
Centre and South successively followed, 1977 and 1983 respectively. The
Ministry of Agriculture and Water Resources developed these Plans, which
is also responsible for the implementation and allocation of water
resources.
Policies, projects and key points
The relatively high vulnerability of Tunisia’s water resources has
led to numerous programmes and projects aiming at improving water use
efficiency. The current status, major deficits and core strategies are
well described in Tunisia’s country report on the water sector. Out of
all relevant programs, the following national policies can be deduced:[17]
a) The continuous development and mobilization of available water resources in order to reach a mobilization rate of 95%.
b) The integrated management of water resources, in particular the
enhancement of transferring excess water volumes from rainy periods to
seasons of drought.
c) Water saving and the control of demand across all sectors.
d) The further development of non-conventional water resources
through expanding the use of treated wastewater in agriculture and
desalinating brackish water for uses across all sectors.
e) The protection of water resources against pollution and over-exploitation.
In order to fulfill these policies, three major strategies have been put into place:
1. The Decennial Water Resources Mobilization Strategy (1990–2000):
The major priority of this strategy is the increase of supply. The
construction of more than 200 small and large dams and the drilling of
more than 1000 deep groundwater wells have led to improvements of use of
Tunisia's available water resources from 60% in 1990 to 87.5% in 2004.
The total budget for the strategy was 2000 MTD (million Tunisian dinar) = 1678 million USD[18]).
2. The complementary strategy (2001–2011): The strategy attempts to
realize long-term objectives, in particular the sustainable balance of
demand and available water resources. It partly consists of similar
measures compared to the mobilization strategy, aiming at reaching a
mobilization rate of 95%.
Furthermore, the strategy puts an emphasis on regulation measures
between wet and dry years, water and soil conservation measures, and the
recharge of aquifers.
The decennial strategy is divided into two 5-year plans, the Xth
development plan (2002–2006) and the XIth development plan (2007–2011).
3. The long-term strategy (until 2030): The long-term strategy mainly
builds up on the Water Master Plans for the north, center and south of
Tunisia described in section 2. The strategy consists of a high number
of studies and research programs with the target to plan and manage
water resources more efficiently on a long run.
Service provisionWater supply
The National Water Supply Authority in Tunisia (SONEDE) is
responsible for the provision of water supply services in Tunisia.
SONEDE is a public non-administrative entity placed under supervision of
the Ministry of Agriculture, Environment, and Hydraulic Resources
(MAERH).[19]
Planning and investment for the allocation of drinking water in rural areas is conduced by the Direction Générale du Genie Rurale (DGGR), which acts in the framework of the Ministry of Agriculture and user associations (Groupements d’interêt collectif (GIC)).[7]
The water sector in Tunisia has so far only seen very limited private
participation. To date, private participation in the water sector is
limited to a contracting programme. Despite a 1999 study on contracting,
very few activities have been contracted out (security and cleaning).
However, the government envisages financing a desalination plant planned
for Jerba through a Build-Operate-Transfer (BOT).[7]
Sanitation
The Office National de l'Assainissement (ONAS),is responsible for the
sanitation in cities, industrial and tourist zones. The mandate of the
ONAS also includes protection of the environment. In 1974, ONAS has been
established in order to manage the sanitation sector. Since 1993, ONAS
got the status of a main operator for protection of water environment
and combating pollution.
Missions of ONAS:[3]
The Directorate of Rural Engineering is responsible for sanitation in
rural zones not covered by ONAS, and the municipalities are responsible
for collecting and disposing of solid waste as well as drainage systems for the flow of rainwater.[7]
Economic efficiency
In 2002,SONEDE had around 7038 employees, 5865 of which were
permanent and 1173 occasional. The number of employees per 1000
connections is of the order of 4.1, constantly but slowly reducing:
SONEDE can always do better in this respect, the ratio of the two water
and sanitation (ONAS) services taken together is of the order of 10
employees per 1000 connections, well above international standards.[7]
The performance of ONAS similar good with respect to regional
standards, but its effectiveness could be improved, because of its high
ratio of employees per connection. The very good performance of Tunisia
in sanitation can be explained by the relatively high recovery of costs.
The current downward trend in the recovery of costs is thus worrying.
Actions and decisions will have to be taken before a vicious circle sets
in. In 2002, ONAS had 5500 employees, 4000 of which were permanent and
1500 occasional. The existence of 66 sewage treatment works in good
working order is a remarkable and unique result for borrowers of the
Bank in the region.[7]
Non-revenue water
Tunisia has a very impressive low rate of non-revenue water with 18.2% in 2004[2]
Financial aspectsTariffs
Based on a proposal by SONEDE and following approval by the board,
the water tariff is ultimately approved by the government (Ministry of
Agriculture, Environment and Hydraulic Resources, and the Ministry of
Finance), which has on occasions refused requests for tariff
adjustments.[19]
Pricing for drinking water in Tunisia is similar to other countries
in MENA Region. It contains a part of a fix contribution and a
proportional part dependant on the consumption of water. In 2001, the
tariffication of drinking water in Tunisia was composed as following:[7]
The exchange rate of the Tunisian Dinar to the US Dollar is 1.00 TND = $0.729968 US.[20]
Regularly, SONEDE reviews the tariffs, taking inflation and
contribution to investments into consideration. Sanitation fees are
invoiced and collected by SONEDE, which corresponds to good
international practices on the one hand, but on the other it makes it
impossible for ONAS itself to improve the collection of the bills from
its customer accounts.[7]
Cost recovery
SONEDE covers its operation and maintenance costs (and a small
fraction of the investment costs) with its tariffs. The price of
drinking water in Tunisia is uniform throughout the country and is not
seen as an obstacle to development. Drinking water charges allow for the
recovery of operating and maintenance costs as well as capital
investments in hydraulic systems.[11]
Investment
The investments of ONAS should go from 390 million TD in the 9th Plan
to 525 million TD in the 10th Plan, i.e. an increase of 32%. Compared
to the SONEDE investments in the water sector, investment in the
sanitation sector remains higher. This is an important point as in the
majority of other developing countries sanitation is neglected with
respect to water supplies. The corollary is that sanitation prices are
high with respect to regional standards, showing a sustained effort in
the collection of costs which is absent in almost all other developing
countries.[7]
Financing
Concerning the sector financing, the situation in Tunisia represent is shown in the figure below[17] in MTD.
External cooperation
External partners have played a major role in the development of the water and sanitation sector in Tunisia. The French Development Agency AFD, the African Development Bank, the European Investment Bank, the German development bank KfW and the World Bank are among Tunisia's major external partners in the water sector.
Multi donor projects
Water sector investment project. In 2000 the World Bank
approved the first water sector investment project (PISEAU) implemented
by the Ministry of Agriculture and Water Resources with a total cost of
258 million USD. It was financed together with KfW development bank,
which contributed USD 17.5 million, while the World Bank financed USD
103 million. It is not clear how the remaining resources were financed.
The Main objective of the project was to promote integrated water
resources management, together with a better policy for water resources
conservation. The project consists of five components: An irrigation
management component, a groundwater management component, a water
conservation and environmental protection component, a rural drinking
water supply component, and an institutional strengthening and capacity
building component. The measures taken are expected to significantly
improve the productivity of agriculture and increase access to drinking
water for rural population. In 2007 the project was concluded.[21]
A follow-up project (PISEAU II) was supported by the African
Development Bank with €22.91 million ($31.3 million), as well as by AFD
(USD 61 million), the World Bank (USD 31 million) and KfW. The project
includes the improvement of conventional water resources including dams,
boreholes and surface wells, as well as non-conventional water sources –
wastewater and brackish water. The project’s target group is Tunisia’s
rural population, across the country’s 24 governorates.
The project will help improve living conditions by increasing the
amount of irrigated agriculture and providing a better supply of
drinking water. Furthermore the project is implemented with the
participation in decisions about the choice of investments through
Agricultural Development Groups (ADGs) for irrigation and drinking
water. Moreover, the project intends to assist the Ministry of
Agriculture and Water Resources and the Ministry of Environment and
Sustainable Development, in order to improve the water resources
management in Tunisia. The closing date of the project is planned for
the year 2015. The total project cost is € 122 million ($167.56
million), excluding the financing from KfW which was approved only in
2010 (check).[22][23][24][25][26]
Network rehabilitation and extension and capacity building of ONAS.
The Kreditanstalt für Wiederaufbau (KfW), a German public-sector
financial institution, co-finances together with the Agence Française de
Développement, the French agency for development cooperation, the
Network rehabilitation and extension and capacity building project. The
total cost of the investment is about 80 million EUR. The project is
implemented in the Gouvernorate of Kairouan and its aims consists in the
rehabilitation and extension of the primary and secondary networks in
the city of Kairouan and in the sanitation of 30 poor neighborhoods.[27]
PISEAU II The Kreditanstalt für Wiederaufbau (KfW), a German
public-sector financial institution, contributed in 2009 with an amount
of 1 Million Euro a 127 Million investment for the water sector on the
territory of Tunisia. KfW gives its contribution through tariffs studies
and user group policies studies. The objective of the project, named
PISEAU II, is the creation and rehabilitation of the irrigation systems,
and the rural water supply. The project also includes a large number of
accompanying activities, studies and technical assistance to strengthen
the sustainability of the works and improve the water management at
national level as well as the water strategy policy in the country and
the regulation of the tariffs politics.[28]
African Development Bank
The African Development Bank co-finances projects with other external
partners in the water sector (see under multi-donor projects).
European Investment Bank
ONAS 4 rehabilitation project. In 2006 the European Investment
Bank signed the ONAS 4 rehabilitation project. The total cost is EUR 90
million. The project aims to finance the collection and treatment of
wastewater in different towns. The treated wastewater will be reused for
farming purposes. It supports the upgrading of the primary and
secondary networks in Greater Tunis; the expansion and rehabilitation of
the sanitation systems in the towns of Monastir, Mahdia, Gabès, Medenine, Tataouine and Gafsa; extension of the South Hammamet treatment plant; construction of three wastewater treatment plants in the towns of Enfidha/Hergla, Menzel Temime and Tazarka/Somâa/ Mâamoura.[29]
France
Rehabilitation and extension of 19 WWTPs. The French
Development Agency (AFD) has approved a loan of EUR 18.5 million to
upgrade and expand 19 wastewater treatment plants and 130 pumping
stations in 11 governorates. The treated water from some plants will be
reused for irrigation.[30]
Germany
Germany co-finances projects with other external partners in the
water sector through financial cooperation projects implemented by
KfW.(see under multi-donor projects).
World Bank
Greater Tunis sewerage and reuse project. In 1997 the World
Bank approved the Greater Tunis Sewerage and Reuse project. The total
investment amounts to 107 million USD. The implementing agencies of the
project are ONAS and the Ministry of Agriculture. The project will
finance the improvement of urban sewerage services and drinking water
supply services. The project promotes the re-use of wastewater for
irrigation purposes. Furthermore the project promotes the reduction of
urban pollution and the coastal degradation through the introduction of
new technologies and technical assistance. The project concluded in
2005.[31]
Urban water supply project. In 2005 the World Bank approved a
USD 38 million loan to SONEDE for an urban water supply project in
Tunisia. The project objective consists in improving the quality of
water in Greater Tunis and other selected urban centres. In order to
achieve its objective the project intends to modernize and upgrade the
water supply infrastructures and enhance the sustainability of SONEPE
activities. The closing date of the project is planned for the year
2012.[32][33]
Tunis West sewerage. In 2006 the World Bank approved the Tunis
West Sewerage project. The investment totals about USD 72 million, 67
of which is financed by the World Bank. The project aims to improve the
quality of sanitation services in Greater Tunis and of the sewerage
sector and promotes reuse of wastewater for irrigation and the
improvement of ONAS performance through capacity building. The closing
date of the project is planned for the year 2012.[34]
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